2024 Honda CRF1100L Africa Twin

Honda’s hard-charging off-road adventurer moves forward with extra low-down torque output for its 1084cc, twin-cylinder engine. A new option, the CRF1100L Africa Twin ES, offers Showa Electronically Equipped Ride Adjustment (Showa EERA^™) damping control and rear spring preload adjustment as well as heated grips and ACC socket. Both models share a redesigned upper fairing, seat unit and larger 5-way height adjustable screen, plus the addition of tubeless tyres. A full electronics package employs a six-axis Inertial Measurement Unit to manage riding modes and HSTC as well as Cornering ABS, Wheelie Control, Rear Lift Control, USB port and standard fit cruise control. Dual Clutch Transmission (DCT), including cornering detection functionality, remains a popular option, with refinements for 24YM. The full colour 6.5-inch TFT touchscreen incorporates Apple CarPlay^®, Android Auto^® and Bluetooth connectivity. Four tailor-made Genuine Honda Accessory Packs – Urban, Rally, Travel and Adventure – are ready to create the perfect traveling partner.

1. Introduction

It’s been well over three decades since the Honda XRV650 Africa Twin first rolled into Europe and while the motorcycle that now bears its name – launched for 16YM as the CRF1000L Africa Twin – was a brand-new machine from the wheels up, it fully inherited the essence and spirit of what made the original so popular.

It was the balance between power and light weight that was at the heart of the original bike’s appeal, just as it was for the new model. With its unique, athletic appearance, an enjoyable, usable engine and capable, comfortable chassis, the CRF1000L Africa Twin proved itself a true modern-day all-rounder and has been hugely popular with round-the-world adventurers, around-town commuters and weekend tourers alike, with over 85,000 units bearing the ‘Africa Twin’ name sold since its return.

18YM saw the Africa Twin, in both manual transmission and Dual Clutch Transmission (DCT) form, receive Throttle By Wire (TBW) control plus 3 riding modes, expanded Honda Selectable Torque Control (HSTC) options, and intake/exhaust development for improved engine response and sound. The platform also expanded: the Africa Twin Adventure Sports – with the same updates but featuring improved wind protection, greater tank range and longer-travel suspension – extended the machine even further into long-range territory.

For the 20YM, the introduction of a bigger capacity, longer stroke 1084cc engine marked another landmark in the evolution of the Africa Twin. The touring ability of the CRF1100L Africa Twin Adventure Sports* was further enhanced by adding the option of Showa Electronically Equipped Ride Adjustment (Showa EERA^™) suspension.

At the same time the CRF1100L Africa Twin itself was comprehensively redrawn with an aggressive, compact rally style and even sharper off-road focus. Alongside the increase in power and torque from the engine, it was also significantly lighter – in keeping with the first principles set out all those years ago. 22YM saw the Africa Twin gain refined DCT settings for smoother handling in 1^st and 2^ndgears and standard fitment aluminium rear carrier.

24YM denotes another major step forward in the model’s evolution with a new Electronic Suspension (ES) choice, more torque from the engine, further DCT improvements and enhanced equipment levels that build further appeal into an already supremely desirable and popular motorcycle.

*See separate CRF1100L Africa Twin Adventure Sports Post.

24YM CRF1100L AFRICA TWIN

2. Model Overview

The 24YM CRF1100L Africa Twin carries a strong focus on core off-road ability, with the look and feel of a slim rally machine. For 24YM the 1,084cc parallel twin cylinder engine has been tuned – via intake, combustion and exhaust development – to produce more low and mid-range torque, and a 7% increase of peak torque to 112Nm; peak power remains at 75kW.

Two options are now available. The CRF1100L Africa Twin, with standard Showa suspension, and the CRF1100L Africa Twin ES, which features Showa Electronically Equipped Ride Adjustment (Showa EERA^™). Showa EERA^™ offers optimised damping in all riding conditions, as well as the ability to change rear spring preload on the move. The CRF1100L Africa Twin ES also includes an ACC charging socket and heated grips as standard, just like its CRF1100L Africa Twin Adventure Sports sibling.

Both Africa Twin variants share a rugged steel frame, CRF450R-derived aluminium swingarm, chassis geometry, suspension travel and ground clearance, all of which are unchanged. A new, but important addition for 24YM is the adoption of tubeless – rather than tubed – tyres, which allow for easier repairs without the need to remove the wheel.

Also, to make long-range road riding more comfortable, mounted to an updated, aggressively-designed front fairing, a new larger 5-way adjustable screen offers maximum forward visibility or increased wind protection depending on rider choice.

A six-axis Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) controls not only the 7-level HSTC but also 3-level Wheelie Control, Cornering ABS (with off-road setting), Rear Lift Control and DCT cornering detection. There are four default riding modes: URBAN, TOUR, GRAVEL and OFF-ROAD.

Tailored for complete control, the riding position features a slim section seat, and high-set handlebars. Dual LED Daytime Running Lights (DRL) give optimum visibility, improving safety and Cruise Control is a standard-fit.  A full colour Multi Information Display (MID) 6.5-inch TFT touch screen brings immersive engagement with the machine’s systems, plus Apple CarPlay^®, Android Auto^® and Bluetooth connectivity.

The 24YM CRF1100L Africa Twin will be available in three paint options that all feature bold ‘mountain’ graphics:

Grand Prix Red

Matt Ballistic Black Metallic

Pearl Glare White and Glint Wave Blue Metallic Tricolour (only available on the CRF1100L Africa Twin ES)

24YM CRF1100L AFRICA TWIN

3 Key Features

3.1 Chassis

• New option of Showa Electronically Equipped Ride Adjustment (Showa EERA^TM) suspension; standard Showa suspension remains available
• Lightweight frame, with bolt-on aluminium subframe and light, rigid CRF450R-style swingarm for outstanding rear wheel traction and feel
• Six-axis Bosch IMU control; cornering ABS provides sure-footed braking and features an off-road setting
• 21/18-inch wheels now mount tubeless tyres 

New for 24YM is a Showa Electronically Equipped Ride Adjustment (Showa EERA^™) suspension option, with settings specifically developed for the CRF1100L Africa Twin ES. Proven on the Africa Twin Adventure Sports and featuring the same stroke as the standard bike (230mm front/220mm rear), the system automatically provides optimum damping force relative to the stroke speed.

It adjusts the damping level based on information from three sources: bike speed (from the ECU), the bike’s stance and attitude (from the Inertial Measurement Unit) and the fork behaviour (from the stroke sensor). The Suspension Control Unit makes adjustments to suspension behaviour within a mere 15 milliseconds (0.015 seconds) of these calculations being made.

The system’s flexibility means that damping adjustment can be programmed to change as the vehicle speed changes – allowing firmer damping at higher speeds, for example. In addition, it can adapt to specific circumstances such as ‘preparing’ the bike’s suspension for landing from a jump, or reducing ‘dive’ under hard braking.

Quite simply, Showa EERA^™ means the rider can select low-speed ride comfort, high speed stability, sporting on-road performance and off-road response at the touch of the screen.

Five suspension modes are available:

MID sits between hard and soft, for easy handling in a wide range of situations. It is automatically selected with Urban riding mode.

HARD is stable, responsive and the firmest damping for two-up and fully laden touring. It is automatically selected with Tour riding mode.

SOFT offers a comfortable, secure ride on poor roads with lowest damping force. It is automatically selected with Gravel riding mode.

OFF-ROAD gives optimum dirt performance, with gradually increasing fork damping relative to stroke speed and firmer all-round rear shock damping. It is automatically selected with Off-road riding mode.

Whereas the above suspension settings are automatically selected according to the riding mode, in USER Riding Mode, the rider can adjust spring preload finely, through 24 steps, front and rear.

The standard fully adjustable Showa setup is also available; the 45mm cartridge-type inverted front forks offer long-travel bump absorption with internal damping settings that provide high-quality on and off-road performance. A cast aluminium top yoke and forged bottom yoke, joined by hollow aluminium stem shaft, clamp the fork legs with two bolts each top and bottom. The Showa rear shock features a 46mm cylinder and remote reservoir for stable damping control in even the most extreme off-road riding conditions. Spring preload can be adjusted via a dial on the shock body.

The strength and rigidity balance of the steel semi-double cradle frame revolves around outstanding off-road ability – at the same time reinforcing its all-round on-road manners. Rigidity around the steering head is optimised to enhance feel for front end grip; the main spars are slim and straight with no front cross pipe. Ground clearance is 250mm, with wheelbase of 1575mm and rake and trail of 27.5°/113mm. Wet weight is 231kg and 233kg for the ES (DCT 242kg/244kg).

A bolt-on aluminium subframe allows the CRF1100L Africa Twin to be narrow under the rider, at only 195mm which is crucial for easy ground reach. The lightweight aluminium swingarm – taking its direction from the design used by the CRF450R – maximises rear wheel traction and rider feel. The swingarm pivot points’ inner plates use 600MPa high-strength steel and the upper cross tube that connects them acts as the rear shock upper mount (through a pillow-ball joint) improving feel for rear wheel traction.

At the very heart of the Africa Twin’s all-round performance is a Bosch MM7.10 six-axis Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) tucked away at the centre of the machine, that measures – in real-time – roll angle/rate, pitch angle/rate and yaw angle/rate. It aids the management of rear wheel traction via TBW and HSTC, front braking grip through cornering ABS, front wheel lift through Wheelie Control and also adds Rear Lift Control. It is also integral to the functioning of the EERA^TM suspension.

The IMU takes in lean angle, deceleration (from front/rear wheel speed sensors) and incorporates the slip rate of the front and rear wheels to manage braking pressure through the ABS; likewise if it detects sudden rear wheel lift, it finely controls brake force to maintain stability. There is an off-road ABS setting and, when stationary the rear ABS can be cancelled completely for off-road riding if required.

Compact two-piece radial-mount four-piston calipers work dual 310mm ‘wavy’ floating discs through sintered pads. The rear 256mm ‘wavy’ disc features specific hole punching and shaping for optimal rear wheel control.

21 inch front and 18 inch rear (stainless steel) spoked wheels wear 90/90-21 and 150/70-18 – now tubeless rather than tubed, which allow for easier repairs without the need to remove the wheel. Metzler Karoo Street 90/90-21M/C 54H and 150/70-19-R18M/C 70H are approved as OEM tyres. Block pattern Michelin Anakee Wild 90/90-21M/C 54R TL and 150/70-18M/C 70R TL tyres are also approved for fitment.

24YM CRF1100L AFRICA TWIN

3.2 Engine

• 1,084cc, twin-cylinder engine generates an extra 7% torque at 112Nm peak, with stronger power and torque in the low to mid-rpm range
• Compression ratio raised to 10.5:1, alongside development of ECU settings, valve timing, intake and exhaust
• Unicam 8-valve head, semi-dry sump and slipper clutch

The 1,084cc, 8-valve parallel-twin engine produces 75kW @ 7,500rpm with peak torque increasing to 112Nm @5,500rpm (up from 105Nm @ 6,250rpm). Bore remains 92mm with 81.5mm stroke; compression ratio is now 10.5:1 (from 10.1:1). There are significant gains in output of both power – and especially torque – off the bottom and through the middle of the rev-range when compared to the previous model.

CRF1100L Africa Twin Power and Torque comparison

The airbox intake ducts go from 29mm diameter to 35mm, to draw in more air, while the two internal trumpets that feed air from the airbox are both an extra 65mm longer. 46mm throttle bodies feed the inlet ports and the bore and cylinder pitches are aligned to create a smooth air intake profile. There are new, optimised ECU settings and the injector angle delivers a direct spray into the twin-spark combustion chambers.

Honda’s SOHC Unicam valve train is a feature of the MX competition-specification CRF450R, and the low-set position of the cast camshaft contributes to the compact nature of the cylinder head and entire engine package; inlet valves are 10.1mm in diameter, exhaust valves 9.3mm. Valve timing has been revised to match the engine’s new tune. Aluminium cylinder sleeves save weight while the 270° phased crankshaft and uneven firing interval create the engine’s desirable signature ‘throb’ and character.

The crankcases are split horizontally; the water pump is housed efficiently within the clutch casing with a thermostat integrated into the cylinder head. Manual and DCT versions of the engine share common crankcases with only minor external differences; the water and oil pumps are both driven by the engine’s balancer shafts.

The engine features a semi-dry sump design with in-tank lower crankcase oil storage. This allows a lower pan depth that keeps overall engine height low. As the pressure-fed pump is located within the tank where it delivers its oil from, there is no need for a pressure-feed passage. Secondary vibrations are neutralised by the mutually reciprocating motion of the pistons, while primary inertial and coupling vibrations are cancelled by the use of biaxial balance shafts.

The aluminium clutch centre and pressure plate use ‘assist’ cams to ease upshifts and ‘slipper’ cams for deceleration and downshifting. The six-speed manual gearbox uses the same shift-cam design as found on the CRF450R to ensure positive changes.

The exhaust muffler has been updated internally to match the changes on the intake side and improve driveability. Lighter than the previous design its new internal structure delivers enhanced engine performance and gives a pleasing exhaust note ‘pulse’ at lower rpm. Another 24YM revision is a tune of the high-rpm sound for a more ‘bass’ filled note.

24YM CRF1100L AFRICA TWIN

3.3 Engine & Chassis Management Electronics

• IMU-managed HSTC intervention levels allow focus on off-road use
• Wheelie Control features 3 levels and IMU management
• Four riding modes: TOUR, URBAN, GRAVEL and OFF-ROAD
• Two USER modes allow for complete customisation

Throttle By Wire (TBW) management and the six-axis Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) are at the heart of the electronic package. The system – updated for 24YM with refined feel – offers 4 levels of power and 3 levels of engine braking. There are seven levels of Honda Selectable Torque Control (HSTC) with each level’s amount of intervention being optimised to work with real-time input from the IMU. The spacing of the levels is optimised to allow the rider a finer choice of the amount of rear tyre slide for off-road riding. HSTC can also be turned off completely.

Wheelie Control is another feature. With the IMU measuring pitch angle and rate, and controlling engine torque via TBW, the rider can choose between 3 levels of input. Level 1 allows for intended wheel lift but suppresses any sudden movement. Level 3 stops any front wheel elevation and level 2 is mid-way between the two. Like HSTC, Wheelie Control can also be turned off completely.

There are four default riding mode settings: TOUR, URBAN, GRAVEL and OFF-ROAD to cover most riding conditions and situations plus two further customisable USER settings. Even within the default riding modes, it’s possible to change some parameters – HSTC between levels 1-7 (plus off), Wheelie Control between levels 1-3 (plus off) and DCT S mode shift pattern levels 1-3.

TOUR employs the highest level of Power (1), for touring with pillion and luggage plus mid-range Engine Braking (2) with active on-road Cornering ABS.

URBAN suits wide-ranging riding requirements and uses mid-level Power (2) and Engine Braking (2) with active on-road Cornering ABS.

GRAVEL delivers the lowest level of Power (4) and Engine Braking (3). Cornering ABS is active with an off-road setting; in this setting, the rear brake ABS cannot be switched off.

OFF-ROAD uses lower-mid level Power (3) and the lowest amount of Engine Braking (3). Cornering ABS is active with an off-road setting; the rear brake ABS can be switched off.

USER 1 & 2 modes offer the rider a choice of two distinct personalized setups – choosing between Power levels 1-4 and Engine Braking 1-3, plus HSTC, Wheelie Control and ABS (on-road/off-road) parameters. USER 1 starts out with level 2 Power and Engine Braking, USER 2 uses level 4 Power and 3 Engine Braking.

Table of Rider Modes

24YM CRF1100L AFRICA TWIN

3.4 Dual Clutch Transmission

• ‘Easy and direct’ system offers super-fast gear changes in either Manual Transmission (MT) or Automatic D and S modes
• Updated for smoother, more natural feel when first moving away and at low speed
• S mode (with 3 levels) revs higher and downshifts sooner than D, for more aggressive riding
• G Switch offers more feel for traction off-road
• Incline detection adapts shift pattern depending on gradient
• IMU allows corning detection function for improved shift timings 

Honda has sold over 240,000 DCT-equipped motorcycles across Europe since the system first appeared as an option on the VFR1200F in 2009. Testament to its acceptance in the marketplace, in 2023 DCT versions of CRF1100L Africa Twin accounted for 49% of the model’s sales.

For 24YM, the CRF1100L Africa Twin’s DCT has been developed to give a much more natural, ‘feathered’ clutch feel on initial take-off and between first and second gears. This has been achieved by improvements to the hydraulic control to equal better clutch response.

The system has been adjusted to make use of the engine’s increased torque, shifting down earlier. It also uses cornering detection – when the IMU recognises the bike is leant over it subtly adjusts the shifting programme for the most natural gear changes. This function too has been improved for 24YM.

DCT delivers consistent, super-fast seamless gear changes, and very quickly becomes second nature in use. It uses two clutches: one for start-up and 1^st, 3^rd and 5^th gears: the other for 2^nd, 4^th and 6^th, with the mainshaft for each clutch located inside the other for compact packaging.

Each clutch is independently controlled by its own electro-hydraulic circuit. When a gear change occurs, the system pre-selects the target gear using the clutch not currently in use. The first clutch is then electronically disengaged as, simultaneously, the second clutch engages.

The result is a consistent, fast and seamless gear change. Furthermore, as the twin clutches transfer drive from one gear to the next with minimal interruption of the drive to the rear wheel, any gear change shock and pitching of the machine is minimised, making the change feel direct as well as smooth.

The extra benefits of durability (as the gears cannot be damaged by missing a gear), impossibility of stalling, low stress urban riding, reduced rider fatigue and greater ability to focus on cornering lines and braking points add to DCT’s appeal.

Three modes of operation are available. MT mode gives full manual control, allowing the rider to shift with the handlebar trigger control buttons. Automatic D mode is ideal for city and highway riding and achieves optimum fuel efficiency. Automatic S mode offers three levels of sportier riding, with the ECU making the engine rev a little higher before shifting up, and shift down sooner when decelerating for extra engine braking.

In either D or S mode, DCT offers immediate manual intervention if required – the rider simply selects the required gear using the up and down shift triggers on the left handlebar. At an appropriate time, DCT seamlessly reverts back to automatic mode, depending on throttle angle, vehicle speed and gear position.

DCT for the CRF1100L Africa Twin is also fully equipped to operate in an adventure environment, with off-road functionality enhanced by the ‘G switch’ accessed via the TFT touch screen display. Activating the ‘G switch’ in any riding mode improves the feel for available traction and machine control by reducing the amount of clutch slip during gear changes. Further functionality for the DCT system comes in the form of incline detection, adapting the gear shift pattern depending on the grade of an incline to provide optimum control.

24YM CRF1100L AFRICA TWIN

3.5 Styling & Equipment

• New 5-way height adjustable screen and upper fairing extend on-road comfort
• Africa Twin ES gains heated grips and ACC charging socket
• Compact body style designed for off-road, with slim seat and high handlebars
• Multi Information Display (MID) 6.5-inch TFT touch screen, Apple CarPlay^®and Android Auto^® compatible
• Bluetooth connectivity, Daytime Running Lights (DRL) and Cruise Control

Aggressive and compact. Two words that sum up the CRF1100L Africa Twin’s taut rally-style bodywork. And it’s for a reason – to work better off-road. It’s been redrawn a little sharper for 24YM, with a new front fairing and rear seat unit. Plus, the addition of a new, 5-stage height adjustable screen makes longer road rides, or commuting in and out of town, more comfortable.

The CRF1100L Africa Twin ES also gets heated grips and an ACC charging socket as standard for increased practicality.

As before, seat height adjusts between two settings, 850/870mm and the high-set handlebars give an upright, high-visibility riding position and comfortable control, whether standing or seated. The tail section is extremely slim, and the narrow seat is carefully contoured to allow good ground reach and easy back and forth movement while an aluminium rear carrier is standard fit for convenient carrying ability.

Holding 18.8L, the fuel tank offers a potential range of over 380km, thanks to fuel economy of 4.9L/100km 20.5km/l in both MT and DCT (WMTC mode).

Dual LED headlights are set high, delivering a penetrating beam, and also feature Daytime Running Lights (DRL) that automatically adjust to ambient light intensity, improving safety, no matter the conditions. Knuckle guards are standard.

The full colour Multi Information Display (MID) 6.5-inch TFT touch screen keeps the rider in control of all of the CRF1100L Africa Twin’s systems, with each of the riding modes­ selectable through the top left of the screen. The MID can also be customised to show various levels of information relative to the riding mode chosen and is easy to use even when wearing gloves.

The MID also incorporates Apple CarPlay® and Android Auto®, allowing use of a smartphone through the touchscreen. Navigation apps can also be accessed and displayed, and, via a Bluetooth helmet headset, calls can be made or received. The smartphone itself plugs into a USB charging port on the right of the MID. Hands-free wireless Bluetooth connectivity is also an option and all control inputs are made from the left-hand switchgear.

The front and rear indicators have an Emergency Stop Signal (ESS) function. When braking suddenly over 50kph the hazard lights flash to warn other road users a hard stop is in process. They also auto-cancel; rather than using a simple timer, the system compares front and rear wheel speed difference and calculates when to cancel the indication relative to the situation. The auto-cancel feature can be switched off and standard-fit cruise control eases long-distance highway travel.

A new high-performance, lightweight and compact lithium-ion battery is standard fit, contributing to mass centralisation.

24YM CRF1100L AFRICA TWIN

4. Accessories

• Huge range of Genuine Honda Accessories ready to go, from tank pads to full Pannier/Top Box luggage solutions and each a perfect fit for the Africa Twin
• Accessories are available individually or in dedicated accessory packs
• Rally, Adventure, Urban and Travel Packs make perfect customisation easy

For a bike like the Africa Twin – which is going to cover a lot of ground, on or off-road – accessories really matter to an owner. And the range from Honda grows year on year with each part, no matter how small or large, driven by customer use, designed by R&D engineers in Japan and manufactured in Honda centres around the world to exacting standards.

It’s easy, too for a new owner to tailor their Africa Twin via the accessory pack system. Based on four distinct profiles of application they also, thanks to complete compatibly, allow almost limitless customisation options using the packs and individual parts, to build an owner’s ultimate Africa Twin.

Rally Pack

Designed to enhance the off-road durability and performance. The pack features wide Rally Footpegs for extra leverage and control and Engine Guards/Radiator Grill to minimise damage. For the Africa Twin with manual transmission a Quickshifter is included, while the DCT option gains a Foot Shift Lever. Colour-matched Knuckle Guard Extenders add weather protection, Wheel Stripes add an exclusive splash of colour that complement the overall look.

Adventure Pack

Ready for the long haul. New Front Side Pipes protect bodywork and are constructed from 25mm stainless steel with a polished, electrolytic coating that resists corrosion and is also easy to clean. They also mount the dual Fog Lights in a higher, more aggressive position that on previous models. A 4.5L tank bag provides flexible, easy-to-access storage, while new Side Tank Pads protect paint from knee scuffs and provide additional grip for off-road riding.

Urban Pack

Available in two options – plastic or aluminium. In plastic, a newly redesigned stripe design compliments the 58L Top Box (enough for 2 full-face helmets, comes with a Carrier Bracket, pillion Backrest and Inner Bag. The 42L aluminium Top Box features its own Carrier Bracket and Inner Bag. The Urban Packs also include new, easy-to-fit heated grips and ACC charging socket, which the Africa Twin ES has as standard. Finally a Main Stand makes for straightforward rear wheel/chain maintenance.

Travel Pack

Like the Urban Pack the Travel Pack comes in plastic or aluminium. 40L left/30L right plastic Pannier Cases – also featuring the new designed stripes – also feature one-size Inner Bags. The Aluminium Cases 37L left / 33L right come complete with mounting stays, and individual right/left inner bags. Redesigned Upper Deflectors channel airflow around arms and shoulders and Lower Deflectors for the legs improve comfort at highway speeds. Comfort Pillion Footpegs are the finishing touch.

Seat Options

Compared to the standard design the Comfort Seat has an 8% larger surface area compared to previous models and uses a +15mm thicker urethane foam cushion with optimised density to reduce long-distance riding fatigue. The Comfort Seat gives a seat height range of 865/885mm and is available in 3 colour choices: Black/Black, Red/Black and Blue/Black. The Low Seat option drops down to 825/845mm.

The line-up is complemented by a 38L Top Box, black rubber Side Tank Pads, and the SC-Project Slip-on Muffler, available in 2 colours, Titanium Silver and Matt Black.

24YM CRF1100L AFRICA TWIN

5 Technical Specifications

** Please note that the figures provided are results obtained by Honda under standardised testing conditions prescribed by WMTC. Tests are conducted on a rolling road using a standard version of the vehicle with only one rider and no additional optional equipment. Actual fuel consumption may vary depending on how you ride, how you maintain your vehicle, weather, road conditions, tire pressure, installation of accessories, cargo, rider and passenger weight, and other factors.